Historical of Brake

More than one hundred years ago, a kind of disc brake, which was called spot-type disc brakes was developed by Frederick William Lanchester, a British engineer. However, the American inventor Elmer Ambrose Sperry had designed the earliest disc brake in the 1890s. And during the Second World War, benefited from to the development of the aviation industry, aircraft disc were also used on automobile. That kind of brakes was improved from Sperry's and called clutch-type disc brakes.

Spot-type disc brake improvements can be traced back to the 1950s.Today, this kind of brakes used in automobile today is similar to the one in 1950s. Because of superior water resistance and fade performance, disc brake has become more popular than drum brakes in the United States since 1970s. (Harper, 1998)

A modern spot-type disc brake includes some major components: the rotor or disc, caliper, brake pad assemblies and a hydraulic actuation system. The rotor is firmly fitted on the axle hub. So it will rotate with the automobile wheel. The pair of brake pad assemblies, the main friction component, and the other components has to be pressed against the rotor, in order to provide the friction torque to slow down the rotation speed of the wheel. The hydraulic pistons, with the caliper cover, drive the pad assemblies. All of these components are known as the master cylinder. When the brake pedal is depressed, the hydraulic pressure in the pistons housed inside the caliper will increase. That means the master cylinder transforms the brake pedal's motion to hydraulic pressure, which is attached by brake lines and hoses to the caliper.

The figure about the automotive brake system

The brake pad assemblies consist of a friction material, mounted to a rigid pad. And friction materials are always considered as composite materials. Bergman and Jacko state that more than 25 components of a brake pad are termed the friction material. These can be divided into five types: a matrix, fibres, friction modifiers, mineral fillers, and solid lubricants. (Kinkaid, 2003)

In 1978, After Felske’s experimental work, he believed that the coupled vibration of the disc brake assembly lead to brake squeal. He found that "the greater the coefficient of friction of the rubbing surface, the more the likelihood of squeal". Nishiwaki who was working for the Toyota Motor Corporation, found that brake squeal could be eliminated by improving the rotor (or disc). His group eliminated a lot of cooling fins in the vented brake rotor. And Saad's experimental results in a recent also emphasized the importance of brake pad resonance in squeal. (Kinkaid, 2003)

Rhee, working at Allied-Signal Inc., observed the formation and destruction of friction films on the rotor in a series of dynamometer tests. And then he recorded effects on brake squeal. Rhee reported that brake squeal did not occur from an initial state to a stable state when the coefficient of friction was stable in the temperature range of 100– 300 degrees Celsius. High temperature eliminated squeal. However, this process also severely damaged the rotor and the pads. (Rhee, 1990)

Automotive Brake Noise

The automotive experts always discuss the automotive brake system as the topic because it is one of important parts in a vehicle. And the brake noise is still a main problem in the automotive industry even though we have already taken efforts to reduce the noise. According to our report, firstly this paper gives an introduction of automotive brake noise, and then gives a description of the historical development of reducing automotive brake noise, and the vibration of the brake system. After that, we will discuss about the reasons of generating automotive brake noise and give some solutions to reduce the noise. And then, this paper describes the different types of brake noises separately. At last, we will talk something about the developing direction of the automotive brake noise.

The automotive brake noise is generally caused by vibration on several parts within the wheels end section of the vehicle, which is between the tires and the connection to the chassis. The vibration can be generated in some components from the wheel bearing to the ball joint, and it is not always caused by the brake pad. It is normal to generate some vibrations when the brake system is operating, but frequently these vibrations cannot be heard because the frequency and the intensity are low. It only can be heard when the frequency and the intensity of vibration increase to the range.

Some ampliative effects from the overlap of the impulse frequencies and the resonance frequency between some brake system components generate high noise intensity. In other words, when two or more vibrations happen at the same time, or a vibration increases, and exert to the brake disc, the brake rotor is regarded as a speaker to make the vibration can be heard and expand the noise.

At the present time, the technology of producing automotive brake system is developed enough to make the vibration frequency of the brake system low enough that cannot be heard. So the brake noise that can be heard indicates that there are some problems or something wrong with the automotive brake system. As the developing of the automotive industry, automotive experts are doing their best to reduce the noise from brake system. And then, they put forward some methods to eliminate the brake noise. At first, they tried to change the structure of the brake system. Finally, they indicated that improving the situation about wear and tear during the using process. Unfortunately, the technology in those years was not developed enough to support the tests and research about the wear and tear of the brake system.

However, in modern automotive industry, the technology is more developed, and actually, the problems about wear and tear that cannot be solved in the past decades are resolved. Moreover, automotive experts could do much more tests and research to find more methods to reduce the brake noise. In the future, we believe that the automotive brake noise will not be a problem anymore.

Radiator Signature

Radiator Signature

Engine heat rejection @ peak power w/auto trans.	5400 BTU/min
Ambient temperature	100 F Grade with trailer
Air temperature into radiator	100F  (no heat pick up)
Air temperature out of radiator (fan blast)	194 F  AC fan and radiator will be retained for short term radiator out temperature rise
Coolant temperature into radiator (top tank)	245 F  Grade with trailer
Coolant temperature out of radiator (bottom tank)	223 F
Radiator type	Cross flow, tube and spacer, brazed
Radiator dimensions and aspect ratio	28’’w x 20’’h core x 0.80 deep. AR=28/20=1.4
Radiator frontal area	3.9 ft2
Fins per inch and spacer height	21 FPI, louvered, 0.340’’ spacer height
Material	Al, tubes, fins & tube sheets, 50% glass filled nylon tanks
Required front end air flow	280 lbs/min into radiator=3889 ft3/min
Air velocity across radiator	1029 ft/min
Radiator effectiveness	65% based on air side
LMTD, log mean temperature difference	82 F (assume cross flow air and coolant)
Pump coolant flow @ 4320 pump RPM	325 lbs/min
Coolant velocity through individual tubes	6.1 ft/sec
Uo overall heat transfer coefficient	35BTU/F
Inside heat transfer coefficient	1231 BTU/F
Outside heat transfer coefficient	44 BTU/F
Air side pressure drop	0.65’’ water

Prius

Introduction

The Toyota Prius c (Fig.1) is a full hybrid gasoline-electric hatchback designed and manufactured by Toyota Motor Corporation. It was introduced in 2012 after great success of the conventional Toyota Prius. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Toyota Prius c is ranked by the EPA as the most fuel-efficient vehicle on the road in 2013 excluding plug-in hybrid vehicles and pure electric vehicles [1]. This report provides a brief overview of the most important design features of Toyota Prius c and a brief summary of the riding experience I had during the HEV Powertrain class in November 19, 2013





Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive (HSD) and Test Drive

Similar to the third-generation conventional Toyota Prius, Toyota Prius c is equipped with HSD system but with a smaller Atkinson-cycle engine and more compact Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM)/generator power split device assembly. With smaller curb weight as well as smaller internal combustion engine, the fuel efficiency is extraordinary even compared to the conventional Toyota Prius.



At the heart of Toyota Prius c is the Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive computer which oversees operations of the entire mechanical and electronic systems of the vehicle. Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive computer determines which engine/motor/generator should be running at what conditions. Depending on the driving conditions both the engine and motors can be used to power the vehicle. The following section gives details regarding all the driving modes I have experienced during last Tuesday’s test drive.



1. At start off and low speeds of Prius c, HSD runs the car only on electric motor(s) since the internal combustion is not capable of delivering high fuel efficiency at low speeds.

2. During normal driving, the vehicle is powered mainly by the gasoline engine. Part of the power is distributed to the generator MG1 to recharge the battery.

3. During full acceleration, such as climbing a hill or overtaking a car, both the gasoline engine and the electric motor MG2 power the vehicle.

4. During deceleration, such as when braking, the vehicle regenerates kinetic energy from the front wheels through MG2 (acting as an electric generator) to produce electricity that recharges the battery pack.



5. When the vehicle is stopped, the engine might be turned on to recharge the battery if the battery level is considered to be very low (i.e. stationary charging mode).




ZENN Electric Vehicle (EV)

In addition to the Toyota Prius c, the CHARGE also uses pure EV to conduct research and experiments. ZENN, which stands for zero emission and no noise, is a two-seat pure EV designed and built by ZENN Motor Company to satisfy people’s need for small and neighborhood-only vehicles that do not require full certification as conventional automobiles.



ZENN is equipped with a 30-hp permanent magnet synchronous motor and six 12 Volts sealed lead-acid batteries. Among all six batteries, four of them are placed at the back of the vehicle, and two are placed close to the electric motor under the “engine hood”. In this way, the weight of the entire vehicle can be evenly distributed, which improves a variety of vehicle characteristics including handling, acceleration and traction. ZENN has a maximum speed of 40 Km/h, and its maximum range before requiring a recharge is about 65 Km.



Conclusion



There is no doubt that automotive manufactures are going to pay more attention to the development of HEVs and EVs. Although both HEVs and EVs are feasible solutions to the environmental problems and high oil prices, unless there is a breakthrough in battery technology to allow people to charge their vehicles more conveniently (e.g. similar to refill their gas tank in a gas station) as well as to allow people to drive at least 500 km with a single charge, EVs will not be widely accepted by the public, and HEVs will continue to dominate the market with no compromise in terms of practicality and fuel-efficiency.

The most popular toy. 2015 Jeep Wrangler.

Pushing the limits of where you can take a sport utility vehicle, the Trail Rated®2015 Jeep® Wrangler is open-air freedom personified. From downtown to the back woods, adventure is yours to discover.






Whatever your style, Wrangler can be configured for your ultimate adventure. With choices like full- or half-framed removable doors44 and hard or soft top roof options17 (or choose the Dual Top Group and get both), it’s clear why Wrangler is the only true 4x4 off-road convertible.


Wrangler comes standard with removable full-framed doors44, featuring rugged aluminum-forged hinges. Power windows and doors are standard on Wrangler Sahara and Rubicon, and available on Sport S. All doors include convenient map pockets with open slots along the lower edges for easy washout.

These feature manual locks and are completely removable for the ultimate in open-air adventure and freedom. Available on Sport S and Unlimited Sport S.




You can match the colour of your hardtop to the body colour of your Wrangler. Featuring larger rear and side windows, this innovative Jeep® Wrangler hardtop is available on Sahara, Unlimited Sahara, Rubicon and Unlimited Rubicon.




The standard Sunrider® Soft Top features large rear windows, and is easy to store and easy to open. With a convenient cable release, you can quickly let the sunshine in. The Jeep® Wrangler soft top is constructed from quiet and watertight 3-ply material and it completely folds down and tucks away when you want an open-air drive.

For top-of-the-line Wrangler air-in-your-hair good looks, opt for the Premium Sunrider Soft Top17. It adds durability and sound dampening for a quieter ride. Plus, a dust blocker helps keep your premium soft top in tip-top shape and always easy to wash.




The Jeep® Wrangler Sport model feature 16-inch steel wheels, while the Wrangler Sport S rides on rugged 17-inch aluminum wheels. Sahara rolls on commanding 18-inch aluminum wheels. Rubicon models are equipped with 17-inch polished aluminum wheels with Mineral Grey painted pockets riding on beefy 32-inch BFGoodrich® tires. 18-inch 7-spoke polished aluminum wheels are also available on the Wrangler Sahara.

The Jeep® Wrangler exterior proudly wears its legendary heritage right down to the classic details. There's the iconic 7-slot grille, exposed door hinges, fold-down windshield44, short front and rear overhangs, and trapezoidal wheel arches. It's a style that reinforces the Jeep® rugged functionality and purpose-designed character.


Now standard across all models is a Torx® Toolkit to make door, hardtop and soft top removal a breeze44. This 3-piece set comes in a Jeep®-branded carrying pouch with durable, laminated instruction cards on how to remove and install the doors and hard/soft tops. So whenever the weather or terrain calls for a change, you're equipped to make the call at a moment's notice.




All Wrangler models feature the 3.6L PentastarTM VVT V6 engine with Best-in-Class 285 horsepower and 260 lb-ft of torque23. Among the unique features of Wrangler's 3.6L Pentastar VVT V6 are an acoustic engine cover to reduce noise, optimized upper intake airflow for more torque, added equal-length downpipes to improve low- and mid-range torque response, and a high-mounted, rear-facing alternator for water fording2.


The available 5-speed automatic transmission offers refined shifting and gear selection, and helps the engine operate in a more efficient RPM range to improve fuel economy. The 6-speed manual transmission is standard on all models.
With its Trail Rated® capability and legendary off-road pedigree, it's even more impressive that the award-winning 3.6L PentastarTM VVT V6 also provides the Jeep® Wrangler with strong fuel economy. You'll notice the fuel numbers look different for all makes of 2015 model year cars and light trucks. The federal government has implemented a new 5-cycle test method to replace the 2-cycle method. It now takes into account air conditioner usage, cold temperature operation, and higher-speed driving with more rapid braking and acceleration for more realistic fuel economy numbers. While the new fuel efficiency ratings are lower, actual fuel consumption has not changed – just the way it is calculated.




This is a 2-speed transfer case that offers part-time 4-wheel-drive capability on Sport and Sahara models for smooth, quiet operation and enhanced reliability with manual operation. The Command-TracTM shift-on-the-fly feature allows you to quickly change between 2WD and 4WD, and the 2.72:1 low range gives you the capability to crawl over rocks.




Available for Unlimited Sport, Unlimited Sahara and Unlimited Rubicon, the Max Tow Package provides an impressive 3.73:1 rear axle ratio, a Class II receiver hitch and a 4-pin connector. When equipped, the Jeep® Wrangler towing capacity reaches up to 1,588 kg (3,500 lb).


All Wrangler models are Trail Rated®, which means they're ready for just about anything out there. Created by Jeep®, the Trail Rated system is a series of gruelling tests designed to prove superior off-road capability in 5 main categories: traction, ground clearance, manoeuvrability, articulation and water fording2. With the Trail Rated designation, you can have complete confidence that Wrangler can handle the most challenging terrain. This is Jeep off-road pedigree at its finest.


Engineered and built for the toughest treks, Wrangler's available heavy-duty suspension incorporates solid axles with locating arms, coil springs, track/stabilizer bars and front steering damper. Tunable monotube shock absorbers are firm at low speeds for improved feel on rocks, while delivering a more relaxed ride at higher speeds.




Off-Road Leadership

Nothing tops Wrangler Rubicon for sheer off-road prowess. Engineered to be the ultimate adventure machine, Rubicon goes where others fear to tread, thanks to its Best-in-Class ground clearance, Best-in-Class approach and departure angles, and Best-in-Class manoeuvrability23.

Rock-Trac Transfer Case

Standard on Rubicon, the legendary Rock-Trac® transfer case features a 4:1 low-range gear ratio for more precision and control and incorporates Tru-Lok®front and rear locking differentials, electronic sway bar disconnect and
Dana® 44 heavy-duty solid front axles.




When the going gets tough, Wrangler makes sure the stopping doesn’t. It's equipped with a 4-Wheel Disc Antilock Brake System (ABS) specially calibrated for off-road 4-wheel-drive conditions.




Skid plates protect the underside of your vehicle from off-road rocks and
on-road debris. Front suspension and drivetrain plates are constructed of
3-mm-thick stamped steel and include an automatic transmission skid bar
(not shown) that protects the transmission oil pan, a transfer case skid plate
and a fuel tank skid plate.

2015 Toyota Tacoma

The 2015 Toyota Tacoma inherits legendary Toyota Truck heritage, helping it to earn it the Best Retained Value Award from Canadian Black Book for 5 consecutive years. With 4x2 and 4x4, Access and DoubleCab, and manual and automatic transmission options, there’s a Tacoma waiting for you to take it for a ride.









4-Cylinder

Tacoma's powerful and efficient 2.7L 16-Valve DOHC4-Cylinder engine generates a sturdy 159 horsepower while cranking out 180 lbs.-ft. of torque — smoothly deployed by Toyota's advanced Variable Valve Timing with Intelligence (VVT-i).

V6 Power

For V6 Models, a 4.0L DOHC Engine offers a burly 236 Horsepower, while pounding out 266 lbs.-ft. of trail-tacklingtorque — kept in check by Toyota's Variable Valve Timing with Intelligence (VVT-i). That’s one more reason that all Tacoma engines boast a Tier2 Bin5 Emissions Rating.


All models feature a Limited Slip Differential that works to maintain the equal distribution of torque between the rear wheels, helping to minimize slippage if one or more tires lose traction.4X4 Access Cab V6 models offer an optional Rear Differential Lock providing maximum low-speedtraction by locking the rear differential, helping to deliver equal torque to each wheel and preventing rear wheel slippage (TRD Offroad Package).

ETCS-i

4x4 Tacoma engines also feature an Electronic Throttle Control System with Intelligence (ETCS-i) which results in the optimal amount of throttle for anysituation-enhancing response, increasing fuel efficiency and reducing maintenance.

Transmission

On V6 models, Tacoma offers a finely tuned 6-speed manual or 5-speed automatic with Overdrive. The automatic transmission employs a Super Electronically Controlled Transmission (Super ECT) that works to help eliminate "gear-hunting" on uphill grades. 4-Cylinder models are equipped with a rapid-fire 5-speed manual, or4-speed automatic with Overdrive.

Towing

Hitch up and hit the road with Tacoma's towing capacity of 3,500 lbs. (1,587 kg). Add the 4X4's SR5 and TRD Offroad Packages (Access Cab V6) and SR5, TRD Sport Packages and Limited (Double Cab models) and increase the load to a whopping 6,500 lbs. (2,948 kg — manual), 6,400 lbs. (2,903 kg — automatic).

Suspension

Up front, Tacoma's reliable Independent Double Wishbone Type Suspension employs Coil Springs, Gas Shocks and a Front Stabilizer Bar to keep turns flat and tight, while in the rear, Leaf Springs and Bias Mounted Gas Shocks provide a responsive, level ride. To help tame tougher terrain, the 4x4 models add available Bilstein® Shocks Front and Rear (TRD Offroad and TRD Sport Packages).

Advanced Control

As part of Toyota's Star Safety™ System, all Tacoma models feature the advanced command delivered by Vehicle Stability Control and Traction Control — helping to handle slippery conditions on- or off-road. 4x4 Access Cab V6 models equipped with the TRD Offroad Package add Active Traction Control.

TRD Offroad Package

For those bored by the beaten path, Tacoma's 4X4 TRD Offroad Package offers a stack of trail-blazing features, including an Upgraded Alternator, Front Skid Plate, and a 400-Watt (120V) Cargo Bed Power Outlet.

Induction Motor

Siemens Induction Motor

There are two induction motors, the left one is made of aluminum, the right one is made of copper. The aluminum one is lighter and cheaper. The copper one is more efficiency, heavy and expensive. As to the induction motor, the magnetic fields from the rotor is created due to the electromagnetic excitation, whereas the magnetic fields are generated by permanent magnet inside the rotor of PMMs.

Measurement and Control Equipment

This is a simulator system of different driving conditions of induction motors. We can receive data and analysis the operation conditions by sending signals of different driving conditions to the induction motor.

2015 Toyota Sequoia

The 2015 Toyota Sequoia is a full-size SUV, carefully crafted and powerfully built. Made for Canadians, Sequoia comes in three distinctive 4WD models: the impressive SR5, the attractive Limited, and the refined 7-passenger Platinum.





Standard features include:
5.7 L iForce V8 Engine
Integrated SiriusXM Satellite Radio
Bluetooth® Capability
Leather Seat Surfaces
Auto-dimming Rearview Mirror with Backup Camera and Compass
Front and Rear Clearance Sonar
Trailer Sway Control

5.7 Litre Engine

2015 Sequoias come equipped with a powerful yet efficient 5.7 litre V8 that is the envy of the engine block world. Boasting a wealth of technological advancements, including Dual Variable Valve Timing with Intelligence, Sequential Multiport Electronic Fuel Injection, Electronic Throttle Control System with Intelligence, and Acoustic Control Induction, this engine generates a massive 381 hp and 401 lb-ft of torque.

6-Speed Automatic Transmission

The 5.7L powertrain includes a smooth 6-speed automatic Super Electronically Controlled Transmission (Super ECT) with features such as: Tow/Haul Mode to extend use of lower gear ratios; highly accurate gear-tooth surfaces for low noise levels; and carefully controlled hydraulic pressures for smoother shifting.

Handling Assist

One-touch 4WD, Active-Traction Control System (A-TRAC), Vehicle Stability Control (VSC), and Trailer Sway Control come standard on all Sequoia models.


Towing

Sequoia features a factory integrated hitch and Trailer Sway Control logic which helps support Sequoia’s ability to haul up to 3,220 kg (7,100 lbs).

4WD

Sequoia features One-Touch 4-WheelDrive, and a Two-speed Transfer Case with a Lockable Torsen Limited-slipDifferential. The transfer case uses asix-gear planetary ring instead of the standard four-gear ring, is shifted electronically via an easy-to-reach rotary knob, and locks with the push of a button.

Brake Assist

Sequoia comes equipped with standardAnti-lock Brake System, Brake Assist, and Electronic BrakeforceDistribution—all part of Toyota's Star Safety System™.




The Platinum model boasts Load Leveling Rear Air Suspension and Adaptive Variable Suspension (AVS) with Comfort, Normal and Sport settings, not only enhancing ride comfort but also boostingheavy-load towing while ensuring the appropriate ride height and chassis attitude.

Switched Reluctance Motor

Switched Reluctance Motor
Controller
The controller is very complex and expensive, it can control the timing of switching the current to
the poles in stator.

For this Switched Reluctance motor, the rated output is 0.87KW, and it’s a four-phase motor, so it has four pairs of electric wires. The rated speed is 6000 rpm, rated voltage is 48 VDC. They have simple and rugged construction, an extremely long constant-power range and high-speed operation. Since SRM control involves successive excitation of poles to align the rotor, torque ripple, vibration and associated acoustic noise are the main concerns in SRM operation. They require a complex converter topology for the drive that makes their control complex and expensive.

2014 FJ CRUISER

Today, I am going to introduce another nice on and off road vehicle. The 2014 Toyota FJ Cruiser.





Fifty years ago, FJ40 Landcruiser stalked the world, setting new standards for off-road durability and capability. The legend lives on with the 2014 FJ Cruiser – as rough and ready inside as it is out – and featuring a 6-speed Manual Transmission, or available 5-speed Automatic.


4.0 Litre V6

Both the 6-speed Manual and 5-Speed Automatic are driven by a 4.0 Litre,24-Valve, DOHC V6 Engine that churns out 260 Horsepower at 5,600 rpm and generates 271 lb-ft of Torque at 4,400 RPM. Aided and abetted by Dual Variable Valve Timing with Intelligence, Sequential Multi-port Fuel Injection, an Acoustic Control Induction System and Electronic Throttle Control with Intelligence, FJ's V6 is also extremely sophisticated, simultaneously improving performance, increasing fuel efficiency and lowering emissions.








Super ECT

On the 5-speed Automatic, Super ECT allows the Engine Control Module (ECM) to manage shift decisions based on engine speed and load. The result: every shift is as precise and seamless as possible. The ECM also monitors throttle position, road speed, power requirements and operating temperature to efficiently direct gear selection and adjust shift points to driving demands.

Front Suspension

Up front, the FJ employs an Independent Double-Wishbone Suspension with Coil Springs, Gas Shocks and Stabilizer Bar. The suspension is mounted high to deliver 7.87" of travel and to protect components from the hard reality of off-roadexploration. With each wheel able to react independently and remain more upright, FJ has the grip to get up and over serious off-road terrain. The set-up also contributes to FJ's smooth ride for those times when you're forced to travel paved roads. The Offroad Package features Front Bilstein Shock Absorbers.

Rear Suspension

In the rear, FJ's Solid Axle with Coil Over Gas Shocks provides plenty of travel – over 9" worth – for traversing rock strewn trails. A 4-Link configuration allows for more precise control of the axle, while a Stabilizer Bar keeps body roll to a minimum. The Offroad Package features Rear Bilstein Shock Absorbers.


Variable Gear Ratio Steering

FJ features Variable Gear Ratio Steering [VGRS] which continually adjusts steering gearing depending on vehicle speed. The result: at high speeds a higher steering ratio delivers more relaxed steering, since the vehicle doesn't alter direction with every movement of the steering wheel. At lower speeds, low steering gearing keeps the steering tight and responsive allowing for quick changes of direction from small steering inputs.


Fuel Capacity & Efficiency

Fuel efficiency isn't the first thing that comes to mind when most people think of off-roading. But, when you're well and truly off the beaten path, getting the most out of every litre is critical to the return journey home. FJ is one of the most fuel conscious of its kind. The manual transmission models use 13.8 litres/100 km in the city and 10.3 on the highway. Automatic transmission models use 12.7 litres/100 km in the city and 9.5 on the highway*. FJ's 72 litre Fuel Tank Capacity also gives you the ability to range far and wide with greater confidence.

Hybrid Auto Powertrain

Introduction

The hybrid vehicle is a vehicle which use both internal combustion engine and electric motor. The lab shows us three different type electric motors, which is permanent magnet motor, induction motor and switched reluctance motor. Among these three types of electric motors, permanent magnet motors and induction motors are two most commonly used motor in hybrid vehicles. Both them produce torque through the interaction between a rotor magnetic field and a stator magnetic field. In addition, both them are powered by a three-phase AC alternating current which passing through the windings of the stator coils. The lab also shows us the Toyota Prius Plug in hybrid car.

Toyota 4Runner

Today, I am going to introduce a nice on/off road SUV to you. It's 2015 Toyota 4 Runner.









For me , I prefer a vehicle that can take me to off road. There are lots of vehicles that can take you to off road to have some fun. But today I would like to tell more about this one.





The 2015 Toyota 4Runner is our mid-size, fully-capable SUV. Available in 5 or 7-passenger models, 4Runner is well-equipped, versatile and comfortable both on the road and off.


Standard features include:
4.0 L V6 Engine and One-Touch 4WD
6.1” Touchscreen Display Audio
USB Audio Input and Bluetooth® Capability
Backup Camera
Running Boards
Roof Rails
Towing Hitch and Trailer Sway Control
Toyota’s Star Safety System




FUEL EFFICIENCY RATING(L/100km)†

14.2/11.1 (City/Hwy)


HORSEPOWER

270 hp @ 5,600 rpm


TORQUE

278 lb.ft. @ 4,400 rpm


ENGINE

4.0 Litre V6


TOWING CAPACITY

2,268 kg (5,000 lb)


SEATS

5

4x4 Capability SR5 and Trail Edition feature a rugged Part-Time 4-Wheel Drive System. On the Trail Edition, a centre-console mounted lever allows the driver to choose between three drive modes. Limited Package is equipped with Full-Time, Four Wheel Drive, a Locking Centre Differential, and a centre-console mounted 3-Mode 4-Wheel Drive Switch.


3-Mode Switch


A 3-Mode Switch, standard on all models except the Trail Edition, enables a driver to quickly choose between 4WDHigh–Free, with engine power split between front and rear axles depending on weather and traction; 4WDHigh–Locked, with power split equally between front and rear axles; and4WD–Low for slow-speed maneuvers.

Electronic Locking Rear Differential


The Trail Edition features an Electronic Locking Rear Differential to distribute power evenly to both rear wheels, delivering precise, predictable power output enabling 4Runner to move at a highly controlled pace when navigating treacherous or uneven terrain.


Off-Road Technology


The 5th Generation 4Runner is the most advanced yet when it comes to off-roadcapability boasting a range of available technologies to help navigate the most difficult geography.




Multi-Terrain ABS


Standard on Trail Edition, an advanced Multi-Terrain Anti-Lock Brake System enhances system performance to the driving surface—more precisely tailoring the ABS slip rate to give greater control during deceleration.

Crawl Control


Standard on Trail Edition, Crawl Control helps make traversing off-roadobstacles and steep terrain easier and safer. Selecting one of five pre-set target speeds—between 1.5 and 5 kilometres per hour—enables 4Runner to cover throttle and brake control so the driver can focus on driving.




Downhill Assist Control


Downhill Assist Control (DAC) augments 4Runner’slow-speed descending ability. By engaging the system on a steep incline, DAC automatically modulates 4Runner’s brakes.

Hill-Start Assist Control


Standard across the 4Runner line-up, Hill-Start Assist Control (HAC) reduces vehicle rollback when starting on a steep incline or slippery surface. HAC detects when the vehicle is rolling backwards, and then automatically and gently applies the brakes, giving the driver time to engage the accelerator.







Multi-Terrain Select System


Standard on Trail Edition, the Multi-TerrainSelect System allows a driver to tailor wheel slip to better handle specific off-roadconditions—from soft slippery terrain to boulder-strewn territory. The four settings include: “Mud and Sand”, “Loose Rock”, “Mogul” and “Rock”.

Active Traction Control


To enhance off-road grip, Active Traction Control (A-TRAC) is standard on all 4Runner models. A4-wheel traction control system, A-TRAC restrains wheel spin and distributes the drive force that would have been lost to slippage of the remaining wheels—making uneven terrain and slippery patches virtually transparent to the driver.






The price is from 38000+ to 48000 +

2015 Jeep Grand Cherokee

The 2015 Jeep® Grand Cherokee is the perfect marriage of luxury and performance. Already the most awarded SUV ever21, the 2015 Grand Cherokee is loaded with Best-in-Class3 features. Take the long way home in this mid-size SUV with Best-in-Class fuel economy20 or get away from the daily grind with up to 3,265 kg (7,200 lb) of Best-in-Class3 towing power5 and Best-in-Class Trail Rated® 4x4 capability3.



Luxurious at every level, the Summit model perfectly unites style and performance. Take command with premium Natura Plus leather-faced seating, now available in Tan, with a cabin accentuated with natural wood accents. The Quadra-Drive II® 4x4 system ensures the powerful capability you expect from Jeep®.

The Jeep® Grand Cherokee SRT® is Canada’s most powerful SUV1, and it has the look to match. Massive Red Brembo® brake calipers and blackened headlamps, front grille, dual exhaust tips and taillamps are just some of the bold styling cues that announce this Grand Cherokee is truly something special.

Classic Jeep® styling combines with luxury to provide a stance like no other. Sharply designed headlamps, available dual integrated exhausts and chrome accents throughout create a presence that will turn heads both on and off the beaten path.

Make your presence known on the roads, even from a great distance, with front and rear LED lighting. The Bi-Xenon HID headlamps get amped up thanks to the outlining LED, standard on the Overland, Summit, SRT® and available on the Limited.

Large taillights with LED lighting catch the eye and a rear aerodynamic spoiler improves on-road performance. Dual exhaust tips are standard on the Overland, Summit, SRT® and available on Laredo with the Altitude Package and Limited models equipped with the 5.7L V8 or 3.0L EcoDiesel V6.

Get awe-inspiring performance and efficiency with the 3.0L EcoDiesel V6 engine delivering clean-diesel technology with low CO2 emissions and Best-in-Class3 fuel efficiency20 and driving range34.

There are also 3 other engines to choose from, each equipped with advanced fuel saving technology and the 8-speed automatic transmission. All can be matched with steering wheel-mounted paddle shifters allowing you precise control of the shift schedule as you exercise the Grand Cherokee’s Best-in-Class 4x4 capability3.

The 3.0L EcoDiesel V6 delivers 240 horsepower and Best-in-Class3 420 lb-ft of torque along with Best-in-Class fuel economy3. This advanced engine also boasts the fuel optimizing Eco mode.

With all its luxury and legendary Trail Rated® capability, it’s even more impressive that the Jeep® Grand Cherokee also gives you Best-in-Class fuel economy3. You’ll notice the fuel numbers look different for all makes of 2015 model year cars and light trucks. The federal government has implemented a new 5-cycle test method to replace the 2-cycle method. It now takes into account air conditioner usage, cold temperature operation, and higher-speed driving with more rapid braking and acceleration for more realistic fuel efficiency numbers. While the new fuel efficiency ratings are lower, actual fuel efficiency has not changed – just the way it is calculated.




When there's heavy lifting to be done, the 2015 Jeep® Grand Cherokee handles it with style – the available 5.7L VVT V8 and 3.0L EcoDiesel V6 both offer a Best-in-Class towing capacity of 3,265 kg (7,200 lb)3. The 3.6L PentastarTM VVT V6 also leads competitor vehicles with a towing capacity of 2,812 kg (6,200 lb)3.




Its construction provides additional gears with no gain in weight, enhances acceleration while reducing fuel consumption, and increases torque for added strength to pull. The system’s precise design and shift schedule can implement a gear change in 200 milliseconds, resulting in ride quality that rivals the most luxurious sedans. There’s excitement as well, by engaging the steering wheel-mounted paddle shifters when you want to customize your shift schedule. The available Sport Mode adjusts your shift schedule and engine power for a more dynamic driving experience. It all adds up to a ride that delivers powerful strength without compromise.




Legendary Jeep® performance delivers Best-in-Class 4x4 capability3. With your choice of four 4x4 systems,explore off the beaten path with the availableTrail Rated® Quadra-Trac I® and Quadra-Trac II®, or Quadra-Drive II®. For a track-worthy experience, choose the Jeep Grand Cherokee SRT® that comes standard with the Quadra-Trac® Active® on-demand 4WD system.




The available Class-Exclusive Quadra-Lift® Air Suspension3 enables you to elevate vehicle ride height with up to 95 mm (3.8 in) of lift. Four corner air springs raise or lower the vehicle according to the setting you choose. At its top ride height, Grand Cherokee provides Best-in-Class ground clearance of up to 275 mm (10.8 in), allowing you to negotiate virtually any off-road obstacle.




Take the road less travelled with confidence. Choose from four 4-wheel-drive systems that provide matchless capability: the Trail Rated® Quadra-Trac I® or Quadra-Trac II®, Quadra-Drive II® or Quadra-Trac® Active on-demand systems. All models equipped with Quadra-Drive I or Quadra-Trac II come standard with Selec-Terrain® – an innovative control system that lets you adjust traction capabilities to adapt to any terrain.




The Class-Leading Selec-Terrain® traction system enables you to maintain traction on a range of surfaces by electronically coordinating up to 12 different powertrain, braking and suspension systems. Standard with Quadra-Trac II®and Quadra-Drive II® 4x4 systems.




This is why the Jeep® Grand Cherokee SRT® is Canada’s most powerful SUV1. Under the hood sits a 6.4L V8 that packs 475 horsepower and 470 lb-ft of torque. A Brembo® braking system with massive 15-inch front and 13.78-inch rear rotors with 6- and 4-piston calipers handle all the stopping duties, while the advanced Selec-TrackTM system puts all the power down to the road. Selec-Track features 5 distinct settings for Tow, Snow, Auto, Sport and Track. Each mode changes the power distribution front to rear so you can instantly dial in the performance of the Grand Cherokee SRT whether you’re towing up to 3,266 kg (7,200 lb) or attacking a winding road.

Fuel consumption and emissions reductions

The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and lower emissions than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions being generated. These savings are primarily achieved by three elements of a typical hybrid design:

1. relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs, resulting in a smaller engine sized more for average usage rather than peak power usage. A smaller engine can have less internal losses and lower weight.
2. having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured energy, especially in stop-and-go traffic typical of the city driving cycle.
3. recapturing significant amounts of energy during braking that are normally wasted as heat. This regenerative braking reduces vehicle speed by converting some of its kinetic energy into electricity, depending upon the power rating of the motor/generator;

Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, but that are frequently found on hybrid vehicles include:

1. using Atkinson cycle engines instead of Otto cycle engines for improved fuel economy.
2. shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or during other idle periods.
3. improving aerodynamics; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel economy is the drag on the car. A box shaped car or truck has to exert more force to move through the air causing more stress on the engine making it work harder). Improving the shape and aerodynamics of a car is a good way to help better the fuel economy and also improve vehicle handling at the same time.
4. using low rolling resistance tires (tires were often made to give a quiet, smooth ride, high grip, etc., but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires cause mechanical drag, once again making the engine work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use special tires that are more inflated than regular tires and stiffer or by choice of carcass structure and rubber compound have lower rolling resistance while retaining acceptable grip, and so improving fuel economy whatever the power source.
5. powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliary pumps electrically as and when needed; this reduces mechanical losses when compared with driving them continuously with traditional engine belts.

These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic where there are frequent stops, coasting and idling periods. In addition noise emissions are reduced, particularly at idling and low operating speeds, in comparison to conventional engine vehicles. For continuous high speed highway use these features are much less useful in reducing emissions.

Petro-hydraulic hybrid

Petro-hydraulic configurations have been common in trains and heavy vehicles for decades. The auto industry recently focused on this hybrid configuration as it now shows promise for introduction into smaller vehicles.

In petro-hydraulic hybrids, the energy recovery rate is high and therefore the system is more efficient than battery charged hybrids using the current battery technology, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in energy economy in US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) testing.[32] The charging engine needs only to be sized for average usage with acceleration bursts using the stored energy in the hydraulic accumulator, which is charged when in low energy demanding vehicle operation. The charging engine runs at optimum speed and load for efficiency and longevity. Under tests undertaken by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 miles per US gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-imp) City, and 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg-imp) highway.[33][34] UPS currently has two trucks in service with this technology.[35]

Although petro-hybrid technology has been known for decades, and used in trains and very large construction vehicles, heavy costs of the equipment precluded the systems from lighter trucks and cars. In the modern sense an experiment proved the viability of small petro-hybrid road vehicles in 1978. A group of students at Minneapolis, Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational Technical Center, converted a Volkswagen Beetle car to run as a petro-hydraulic hybrid using off-the shelf components. A car rated at 32mpg was returning 75mpg with the 60HP engine replaced by 16HP engine. The experimental car reached 70 mph.[36]

In the 1990s, a team of engineers working at EPA’s National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory succeeded in developing a revolutionary type of petro-hydraulic hybrid powertrain that would propel a typical American sedan car. The test car achieved over 80 mpg on combined EPA city/highway driving cycles. Acceleration was 0-60 mph in 8 seconds, using a 1.9 liter diesel engine. No lightweight materials were used.The EPA estimated that produced in high volumes the hydraulic components would add only $700 to the base cost of the vehicle.[34]

While the petro-hydraulic system has faster and more efficient charge/discharge cycling and is cheaper than petro-electric hybrids, the accumulator size dictates total energy storage capacity and may require more space than a battery set.

Research is underway in large corporations and small companies. Focus has now switched to smaller vehicles. The system components were expensive which precluded installation in smaller trucks and cars. A drawback was that the power driving motors were not efficient enough at part load. A British company (Artemis Intelligent Power) has made a breakthrough by introducing an electronically controlled hydraulic motor/pump, the Digital Displacement® motor/pump, that is highly efficient at all speed ranges and loads, making small applications of petro-hydraulic hybrids feasible.[37] The company converted a BMW car as a test bed to prove viability. The BMW 530i, gave double the mpg in city driving compared to the standard car. This test was using the standard 3,000cc engine. Petro-hydraulic hybrids using well sized accumulators entails downsizing an engine to average power usage, not peak power usage. Peak power is provided by the energy stored in the accumulator. A smaller more efficient constant speed engine reduces weight and liberates space for a larger accumulator.[38]

Current vehicle bodies are designed around the mechanicals of existing engine/transmission setups. It is restrictive and far from ideal to install petro-hydraulic mechanicals into existing bodies not designed for hydraulic setups. One research project's goal is to create a blank paper design new car, to maximize the packaging of petro-hydraulic hybrid components in the vehicle. All bulky hydraulic components are integrated into the chassis of the car. One design has claimed to return 130mpg in tests by using a large hydraulic accumulator which is also the structural chassis of the car. The small hydraulic driving motors are incorporated within the wheel hubs driving the wheels and reversing to claw-back kinetic braking energy. The hub motors eliminates the need for friction brakes, mechanical transmissions, drive shafts and U joints, reducing costs and weight. Hydrostatic drive with no friction brakes are used in industrial vehicles.[39] The aim is 170mpg in average driving conditions. Energy created by shock absorbers and kinetic braking energy that normally would be wasted assists in charging the accumulator. A small fossil fuelled piston engine sized for average power use charges the accumulator. The accumulator is sized at running the car for 15 minutes when fully charged. The aim is a fully charged accumulator which will produce a 0-60 mph acceleration speed of under 5 seconds using four wheel drive.[40][41][42]

In January 2011 industry giant Chrysler announced a partnership with the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to design and develop an experimental petro-hydraulic hybrid powertrain suitable for use in large passenger cars. In 2012 an existing production minvan will be adapted to the new hydraulic powertrain.[34][43][44][45]

PSA Peugeot Citroën exhibited an experimental "Hybrid Air" engine at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show.[46] The vehicle uses nitrogen gas compressed by energy harvested from braking or deceleration to power an hydraulic drive which supplements power from its conventional gasoline engine. The hydraulic and electronic components were supplied by Robert Bosch GmbH. Production versions priced at about $25,000, £17,000, are scheduled for 2015 or 2016. Mileage was estimated to be about 80 miles per gallon for city driving if installed in a Citroën C3.[47]

Hybrid fuel (dual mode)

In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for propulsion, some also consider vehicles that use distinct energy sources or input types ("fuels") using the same engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described above and to use correctly the terms, these are perhaps more correctly described as dual mode vehicles:
Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on board diesel engine and overhead electrical power depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In principle, this could be combined with a battery subsystem to create a true plug-in hybrid trolleybus, although as of 2006, no such design seems to have been announced.
Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank — typically gasoline and ethanol, or methanol, or biobutanol.
Bi-fuel vehicle:Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be impossible to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are built with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine. For example Chevys Silverado 2500 HD, which is now on the road, can effortlessly switch between petroleum and natural gas, and offers a range of over 650 miles.[25] While the duplicated tanks cost space in some applications, the increased range, decreased cost of fuel and flexibility where (LPG or NG) infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase. While the US Natural gas infrastructure is partially incomplete, it is increasing at a fast pace, and already has 2600 CNG stations in place.[26] With a growing fueling station infrastructure, a large scale adoption of these bi-fuel vehicles could be seen in the near future. Rising gas prices may also push consumers to purchase these vehicles. When gas prices trade around $4.00, the price per MMBTU of gasoline is $28.00, compared to natural gas's $4.00 per MMBTU.[27] On a per unit of energy comparative basis, this makes natural gas much cheaper than gasoline. All of these factors are making CNG-Gasoline bi-fuel vehicles very attractive.
Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available, such as cars modified to run on autogas (LPG) and diesels modified to run on waste vegetable oil that has not been processed into biodiesel.
Power-assist mechanisms for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are also included (see Motorized bicycle).

Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV)

Given suitable infrastructure, permissions and vehicles, BEVs can be recharged while the user drives. The BEV establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead wires on the highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanism (see Conduit current collection). The BEV's batteries are recharged by this process—on the highway—and can then be used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged. Some of battery-electric locomotives used for maintenance trains on the London Underground are capable of this mode of operation. Power is picked up from the electtrified rails where possible, switching to battery power where the electricity supply is disconnected.

This provides the advantage, in principle, of virtually unrestricted highway range as long as you stay where you have BEV infrastructure access. Since many destinations are within 100 km of a major highway, this may reduce the need for expensive battery systems. Unfortunately private use of the existing electrical system is nearly universally prohibited.

The technology for such electrical infrastructure is old and, outside of some cities, is not widely distributed (see Conduit current collection, trams, electric rail, trolleys, third rail). Updating the required electrical and infrastructure costs can be funded, in principle, by toll revenue, gasoline or other taxes.

Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles

When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to a Hybrid electric vehicle. These encompass such vehicles as the Saturn Vue, Toyota Prius, Toyota Yaris, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid, Lexus RX 400h and 450h and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid most commonly uses internal combustion engines (generally gasoline or Diesel engines, powered by a variety of fuels) and electric batteries to power the vehicle. There are many types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains, from Full hybrid to Mild hybrid, which offer varying advantages and disadvantages.[23][not in citation given]

Henri Pieper in 1899 developed the first petro-electric hybrid automobile in the world. In 1900, Ferdinand Porsche developed a series-hybrid using two motor-in-wheel-hub arrangements with a combustion generator set providing the electric power, setting two speed records.[citation needed] While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 19th century, the braking regenerative hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 1978–79. His home-converted Opel GT was reported to return as much as 75MPG with plans still sold to this original design, and the "Mother Earth News" modified version on their website.[24]

The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has the range needed in locations where there are wide gaps with no services. The batteries can be plugged into house (mains) electricity for charging, as well being charged while the engine is running.

valvematic

The Valvematic system offers continuous adjustment to lift volume and timing, and improves fuel efficiency by controlling the fuel/air mixture using valve control rather than conventional throttle plate control.[3] The technology made its first appearance in 2007 in the Noah[4] and later in early-2009 in the ZR engine family used on the Avensis. This system is simpler in design compared to Valvetronic and VVEL, allowing the cylinder head to remain at the same height.

vvtiw

VVT-iW was introduced with the 2.0L turbocharged direct-injected 8AR-FTS fitted to the Lexus NX200t. It enables the engine to operate in both the Otto and a modified-Atkinson cycle, by offering expanded valve opening angles, resulting in increased fuel-efficiency at low engine loads.[citation needed]

The electric motor in the actuator spins together with the intake camshaft as the engine runs. To maintain camshaft timing, the actuator motor will operate at the same speed as the camshaft. To advance the camshaft timing, the actuator motor will rotate slightly faster than the camshaft speed. To retard camshaft timing, the actuator motor will rotate slightly slower than camshaft speed. The speed difference between the actuator motor and camshaft timing is used to operate a mechanism that varies the camshaft timing. The benefit of the electric actuation is enhanced response and accuracy at low engine speeds and at lower temperatures. as well as a greater total range of adjustment. The combination of these factors allows more precise control, resulting in an improvement of both fuel economy, engine output and emissions performance